Differentiated Instruction Essay

â€Å"What Is a Differentiated Classroom?† is the title of the first chapter of our course text. Below the title is a quote from Seymour Sarason’s â€Å"The Predictable Failure of Educational Reform.† The quote states: â€Å"A different way to learn is what the kids are calling for †¦.All of them are talking about how our one-size-fits-all delivery system – which mandates that everyone learn the same thing at the same time, no matter what their individual needs – has failed them. This is a powerful statement and one that admittedly paints an accurate picture of much of my teaching style coming into this course – â€Å"a one-size-fits-all delivery system.† My initial reaction to the opening statement was a bit defensive and off-putting. As I continued to read, I was momentarily validated when shortly afterwards I read that teacher’s often ask the question â€Å"How can I possibly divide time, resources and myself so that I am an effective catalyst for maximizing talent in all my students?† There are seemingly just too many needs and variables to reach the masses in a classroom. Teach to the middle seems to be a logical strategy. If we assume the 80-20 rule, we can reach 80% of the students fairly effectively with this methodology. Of the remaining 20 %, some portion of them should be able to glean part of the information. To be sure, I am available and encouraging of questions to assist in understanding. Additionally, I may grade an individual’s work with some reasonable variance. But other than some on-the-fly adjustments I may make to assignments as I see need that is the extent of my differentiation in the classroom. SEEMS reasonable enough! Or should I say SEEMED reasonable enough!! The remainder of chapter one promptly provided a stern but inspirational slap-in-the-face. It offered a quick but stark contrast to my seemingly logical method of operation. A few of the â€Å"differentiation† concepts highlighted which served as motivation a prompted further reading: †¢Teachers begin where students are, not from the start of a curriculum guide †¢Teachers must be ready to engage students in instruction through different modalities, by appealing to differing interests, and by using varied rates of instruction along with varied degrees of complexity †¢Teachers provide specific ways for each individual to learn as deeply as possible and as quickly as possible, without assuming one student’s road map for learning is identical to anyone else’s. †¢Teachers begin with a clear and solid sense of what constitutes powerful curriculum and engaging instruction. Then they ask what it will take to modify that instruction so that each learner comes away with understandings and skills. †¢It is difficult to achieve a differentiated classroom because there are few examples of them. (Tomlinson, 1999) With these thoughts as an introduction and tapping into my drive for continual improvement the stage was set for the course. Moving forward, I see in retrospect, what chapter one did for peeking my interest in differentiated instruction I believe the rest of the book, the course workbook and the course itself did for laying the foundation towards true implementation. The following are four lesson plans I have developed to begin the process of differentiating lessons for my students. The differentiated concepts utilized are Entry Points, Problem Solving, Sternberg’s 3 Intelligences and Extension Menu’s. These lessons, while unique in their methodologies, all reflect the underlying assumption of Differentiated Instruction (DI). And that assumption, as reflected in a graphic organizer in our course workbook, is that †¦.Differentiation is a response to the learner’s needs using learning profiles, interests and readiness in content, process and product. The first lesson constructed utilizes Howard Gardner’s â€Å"Entry Points† strategy. This lesson is designed to account for the various learning profiles of student’s and is based off of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory. The major tenet of MI theory is that people learn, represent, and utilize knowledge in many different ways. These differences challenge an educational system which assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to educate and test student learning. According  to Gardner, â€Å"the broad spectrum of students–and perhaps the society as a whole–would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a number of way s and learning could be accessed through a variety of means.† The Multiple Intelligences postulated in this theory are: †¢Linguistic Intelligence –The capacity to use oral and/or written words effectively. †¢Logical-Mathematical Intelligence –the ability to effectively use numbers and to reason. †¢Spatial Intelligence –the capacity to accurately perceive the visual/spatial world and create internal mental images. †¢Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence –the ability to skillfully move one’s body and to move and manipulate objects. †¢Musical Intelligence –a sensitivity to and grasp of the elements of music. †¢Interpersonal Intelligence –the capacity to perceive and distinguish moods, intentions, and feelings of others. and using simulations to learn about events, feelings and alternative strategies for behaving. †¢Intrapersonal Intelligence –the ability to know one’s self and act on the basis of that knowledge. †¢Naturalistic intelligence – the ability to recognize and classify plants, animals, and minerals including a mastery of taxonomies. (The Theory of Multiple Intelligences) Stemming from the MI theory is Gardner’s â€Å"Entry Point† strategy for education. According to this strategy, Gardner proposes student exploration of a given topic through as many as five avenues: Narrational (presenting a story), Logical-Quantitative (using numbers or deduction), Foundational (examining philosophy and vocabulary), Aesthetic (focusing on sensory features), and Experiential (hands-on). (Grants and Research Office) In utilizing the Entry Point strategy in the first lesson plan, students will explore and be introduced to the world of â€Å"new products and services through invention, innovation and discovery† via four of the five entry points listed: Narrational, Logical-Quantitative, Foundational and Aesthetic. The fifth entry point, Experiential, is included in the unit lesson and will be used as a summative experience. The differentiated design of this lesson taps into the multiple learning styles of students through a variety of processes. Teaching Strategies Entry Point Strategies for subject â€Å"New Products†: †¢Narrative: Students browse the internet searching for new products which have recently been introduced to the consumer. Student’s compile a list of their findings as they progress. †¢Logical/Mathmatic: Students gather statistics regarding the sales of a product over the products life cycle. Student’s then incorporate that statistical data into a graph via excel †¢Aesthetic: Students create a collage of new products along with the demographic who would utilize the product †¢Foundational: Entrepreneurship: Students view three of a possible five video clips on the role of Inventors/Innovators/Entrepreneurs and their connection to new products. Discussion to follow †¢Experiential: Field Trip to QVC to view new products as they are being displayed, advertised and sold The second of the four differentiated lessons centers on the essential question of â€Å"What is the Six Step Developmental Process?† The differentiated strategy employed in this lesson is based on Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence. I looked forward to putting this lesson together as Sternberg’s theory is one that resonates with me. Coming from the business management world, and being new to the vocation of teaching, I find much of my class instruction project based with a real world â€Å"practical† slant.  Additionally, as a manager in business, one is constantly striving to place the correct people in the correct roles within a company. Hiring’s, training, evaluations, promotions, firings, relocations are all a product of a manager’s evaluation of employees strengths, talents, weaknesses and deficiencies. When evaluating and placing individual’s the criteria often looked at are an employee’s analytical, cre ative and practical skills. This theory strikes me as a perfect correlation between educational/intellectual theory and real world application. A brief summary of Dr. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of (Successful) Intelligence contends that intelligent behavior arises from a balance between analytical, creative and practical abilities, and that these abilities function collectively to allow individuals to achieve success within particular contexts. Analytical abilities enable the individual to evaluate, analyze, compare and contrast information. Creative abilities generate invention, discovery, and other creative endeavors. Practical abilities tie everything together by allowing individuals to apply what they have learned in the appropriate setting. To be successful in life the individual must make the best use of his or her analytical, creative and practical strengths, while at the same time compensating for weaknesses in any of these areas. This might involve working on improving weak areas to become better adapted to the needs of a particular environment, or choosing to work in an environment that values the individual’s particular strengths (Plucker). As applied to the classroom, it is important to provide students with the opportunity to learn based off of their natural and stronger intellectual ability(ies). Too often, education has tried to fit everyone into the â€Å"Analytical† mold. However, it is to be noted, teachers should also strive to provide the opportunity for students to learn subject material via their weaker intellectual ability as well so as to simultaneously develop intellectual learning abilities as well as a base of knowledge in a particular subject matter. Teaching Strategies Sternberg Based Strategies for lesson – â€Å"Developing New Products – The Six Step Process†: †¢Analytical †¢Identify the Six Step Developmental Process in developing a new product. †¢Choose and research one of the product options given and cite how that product progressed through each of the six step process †¢Write a one page summary on your thoughts of the effectiveness of the Six Step Process in the development of the product you chose. Would you have followed the same process or deviated at any point? State why or why not and if you would have deviated state how and why. †¢Creative †¢Identify the Six Step Developmental Process in developing a new product. †¢Describe a fictional product that you would like to see invented †¢Assume the role of an inventor and take your fictional product through the Six Step Developmental Process. Describe the considerations and possible decisions made at each step. †¢Create a model of your product via a picture or prototype †¢Practical †¢Identify the Six Step Developmental Process in developing a new product. †¢Describe a product you use and find valuable in everyday life †¢ Assume you were the inventor/innovator of the product you described, describe some of the considerations and decisions you believe were made at each step of the Six Step Developmental Process. †¢In a presentation, show and demonstrate the product you have chosen and describe some of the elements of the Six Step Developmental Process you believe were critical in its development. The third of the four lesson plans has as its content the â€Å"Marketing Mix.† The essential questions the students are to acquire answers to and achieve understanding for center around the â€Å"Distribution† component of the Marketing Mix. The DI teaching strategy to be utilized in this lesson is that of â€Å"Problem Based Learning.† As with Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Learning this particular strategy also resonates strongly with me. Again, coming from the business world, I see great value in a Problem Based Learning approach. It is very often how business gets done. Answers to problems must be contemplated, researched, solutions designed, implemented, evaluated †¦process repeated. Taking both DI approaches a step further, I see that merging Sternberg’s theory with Problem Based Learning (PBL) is a way of maximizing the PBL approach. A quick summarization of PBL: Problem-based learning (PBL) is an approach that challenges students to learn through engagement in a real problem. It is a format that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem-solvers confronted with a situation that simulates the kind of problems they are likely to face as future managers in complex organizations. Problem-based learning is student-centered. PBL makes a fundamental shift–from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning. The process is aimed at using the power of authentic problem solving to engage students and enhance their learning and motivation. There are several unique aspects that define the PBL approach: †¢Learning takes place within the contexts of authentic tasks, issues, and problems–that are aligned with real-world concerns. †¢In a PBL course, students and the instructor become co-learners, co-planners, co-producers, and co-evaluators as they design, implement, and continually refine their curricula. †¢The PBL approach is grounded in solid academic research on learning and on  the best practices that promote it. This approach stimulates students to take responsibility for their own learning, since there are few lectures, no structured sequence of assigned readings, and so on. †¢PBL is unique in that it fosters collaboration among students, stresses the development of problem solving skills within the context of professional practice, promotes effective reasoning and self-directed learning, and is aimed at increasing motivation for life-long learning. (Purser) Below is a diagram located from the University of California, Irvine website. I found it succinct and anticipate it to be very helpful as I move forward in the implementation of Problem Based Learning in my classroom. WHAT: HOW? WHY? Student-centered & Experiential Select authentic assignments from the discipline, preferably those that would be relevant and meaningful to student interests. Students are also responsible for locating and evaluating various resources in the field. Relevance is one of the primary student motivators to be a more self-directed learner Inductive Introduce content through the process of problem solving, rather than problem solving after introduction to content. Research indicates that â€Å"deeper† learning takes place when information is introduced within a meaningful context. Builds on/challenges prior learning If the case has some relevance to students, then they are required to call on what they already know or think they know. By focusing on their prior learning, students can test assumptions, prior learning strategies, and facts. The literature suggests that learning takes placewhen there is a conflict between prior learning and new information. Context-specific Choose real or contrived cases and ground the count in the kinds of challenges faced by practitioners in the field. Again, context-specific  information tends to be learned at a deeper level and retained longer. Problems are complex and ambiguous, and require meta-cognition Select actual examples from the â€Å"real life† of the discipline that have no simple answers. Require students to analyze their own problem solving strategies. Requires the ability to use higher order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and creation of new knowledge. Creates cognitive conflict Select cases with information that makes simple solutions difficult: while the solution may address one part of a problem, it may create another problem. Challenges prior learning as noted above. The literature suggests that learning takes place when there is a conflict between prior learning and new information. Collaborative & Interdependent Have students work in small groups in order to address the presented case By collaborating, students see other kinds of problem solving strategies used, they discuss the case using their collective information, and they need to take responsibility for their own learning, as well as their classmates’. (Gallow) †¢What are the four components of the â€Å"Marketing Mix† and which component deals with the delivery of a product to the consumer market? †¢What are the three methods of distribution†? †¢How does the method of distribution a company selects impact availability to the consumer? Teaching Strategies â€Å"Problem Based Learning† Strategy for lesson on the Marketing Mix component of â€Å"Distribution†: †¢Problem/Scenario: In pairs, â€Å"Marketing Partners† will determine the best methodology to â€Å"DISTRIBUTE† the product assigned to their â€Å"Marketing Firm.† †¢Problems to solve/Questions to answer: †¢What distribution channels does the competitor use? †¢Create in table form your competitors names, distribution channels and relative success of the competitor †¢What distribution options are viable for your company? †¢Create in table form a list of all possible distribution channels for your product as well as the benefits and drawbacks of each channel †¢In email form, compose a letter to your Director of Marketing defining the three levels of distribution intensity (Intensive, Exclusive and Selective) and indicate which level you recommend utilizing and explain why. †¢Based on the distribution intensity strategy you selected, create a data base (excel or word using tables) of at least 10 stores that may be a good fit to carry your product. Database should include the prospects: name, address, phone number, email and a short list of products carried. †¢Create a â€Å"Marketing Proposal Presentation† to deliver to your co-workers (class) which outlines your proposed distribution plan. The fourth lesson plan created and to be implemented as part of my new-and-improved DI Classroom of the future will utilize the strategy of Extension Menus. This lesson, as with the previous lesson, will have as its content the â€Å"Marketing Mix.† However, the focus and essential questions will center on the concept of â€Å"Promotion.† I see the significance and benefits of extension menus as many. Among the value points of extension menus is that they can be created to meet student needs using all three of the discussed vehicles: Learning Profiles, Interest and Readiness. In researching and then summarizing Extension Menus I have summarized the key elements in bullet form: Definition of Extension Menu An extension menu is an array of independent learning activities to provide students with choices for extending or enriching the essential curriculum. Purposes of Extension Menus †¢Enrich or extend the essential curriculum †¢Challenge the abilities of highly able students †¢Provide alternative activities that address the differing abilities, interests, or learning styles of students Advantages of Extension Menus †¢Can be written for any curriculum area †¢Provide rigorous and challenging learning activities for highly able students †¢May be tiered to accommodate all levels of instruction in the classroom †¢Can be used to target specific learning activities for an individual student or group of students †¢Allow student choice as well as challenge †¢Encourage the development of independent thinkers †¢Allow the teacher to monitor students’ choices and behaviors to learn more about their interests, abilities and learning styles †¢Promote student use of higher level thinking skills †¢ Promote flexible grouping in the classroom †¢Allow the teacher to be a facilitator Varied Uses of Extension Menus †¢Follow-up activity after a lesson †¢Culminating activity at the end of a unit †¢Anchoring activity (defined by Carol Ann Tomlinson as, â€Å"meaningful work done individually and silently especially when children first begin a class or when they finish assigned work †¢Learning center for enrichment and/or extension of the curriculum †¢Independent activity for students who have compacted out of specific curricular objectives or who have completed their work (Byrdseed, 2009-1012) Below is an Extension Menu I came across in my research. It will serve as a model moving forward. I thought it appropriate to include as an illustration of excellence. Tic-Tac-Toe Menu Collect Facts or ideas which are important to you. (Knowledge) Teach A lesson about your topic to our class. Include as least one visual aid. (Synthesis) Draw A diagram, map or picture of your topic. (Application) Judge Two different viewpoints about an issue. Explain your decision. (Evaluation) Photograph Videotape, or film part of your presentation. (Synthesis) Demonstrate Something to show what you have learned. (Application) Graph Some part of your study to show how many or how few. (Analysis) Create An original poem, dance, picture, song, or story. (Synthesis) Dramatize Something to show what you have learned. (Synthesis) Survey Others to learn their opinions about some fact, idea, or feature of your study. (Analysis) Forecast How your topic will change in the next 10 years. (Synthesis) Build A model or diorama to illustrate what you have learned. (Application) Create An original game using the facts you have learned. (Synthesis) Memorize And recite a quote or a short list of facts about your topic. (Knowledge) Write An editorial for the student newspaper or draw an editorial cartoon. (Evaluation) Compare Two things from your study. Look for ways they are alike and different. (Analysis) (schoolloop.com) For my first crack at Extension Menus I am offering a choice between three options. The projects assume a given level of â€Å"Readiness† as they are culminating exercises. â€Å"Interest† and â€Å"Learning Profiles† are tapped into as the choices offered are through the mediums of graphics (brochure), audio recordings (radio announcement-recorded or recited) or writings (public relations article). Additionally, the exercises also tap in Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory by meeting â€Å"Creative† and â€Å"Practical† components. †¢What are the four components of the â€Å"Marketing Mix† and which component deals with making the public aware of a business’ products or services? †¢What are the various methods of â€Å"Promotion†? †¢How do promotional activities influence consumers? Teaching Strategies Extension Menus for lesson on the Marketing Mix component of â€Å"Promotions†: Following unit lesson regarding the â€Å"Promotions† aspect of the Marketing Mix, students will be provided the opportunity to select one of three extension projects to demonstrate their knowledge of the subject. The basic nature of each assignment will vary to allow students the opportunity to select a methodology in which they are more inclined. The students will create either an artistic, written or verbal/kinesthetic product. †¢Extension Menu Project An entertainment group has just booked a three week engagement at your cities convention hall. Your marketing firm is one of two firms being considered to promote this event. You have been tasked to provide a sample marketing piece to win the job. Choose one of the following methodologies and create a â€Å"Promotional† piece for this event. Details of the event will be distributed. †¢Tri-fold Brochure: Using â€Å"Word† or a similar program, create a tri-fold brochure which pictures the entertainment groups major events and as well as various features of their business. †¢Public Relations Article: Using †Word,† create an article publicizing the coming of the entertainment group to your city and generate a â€Å"buzz† that will draw attendance to the various events. †¢Radio Announcement: Using a recording program, create a radio advertisement announcing the coming of the entertainment group to your city and highlight several of the main events. Also promote your station’s on-site appearance at one of the events. OR Write your radio announcements and perform them live for the class. As the saying goes †¦.†If you’re not moving forward – you’re moving backwards!† The challenge for us in this course, through classroom instruction, discussion, exercises, text readings and research, is to move forward in our instruction by way of transitioning from traditional methods of instruction to differentiated methods. I came into the course skeptical. I exit via this LEP project as encouraged and inspired. We talked about starting small and moving towards the greater goal. With these lesson plans and the tools acquired during class/research the foundation of a start have been laid. Works Cited (n.d.). Retrieved July Wednesday, 2012, from schoolloop.com: http://pps-pajaro-ca.schoolloop.com/file/1303568322190/1312697332954/8516106516570643153.pdf Byrdseed, I. (2009-1012). Byrdseed. Retrieved July Wednesday, 2012, from Offer Choice with Extension Menus: http://daretodifferentiate.wikispaces.com/file/view/Extension+Menu+directions+9.1.04.pdf Gallow, D. .. (n.d.). University of California, Irvine. Retrieved July Tuesday, 2012, from Problem-Based Learning Faculty Institute: http://www.pbl.uci.edu/whatispbl.html Grants and Research Office. (n.d.). Retrieved July Monday, 2012, from Applying Research to Practice:

People Naturally Walk in Circles Essay

The article  ¨People naturally walk in circles ¨ by Emily Sohn, represents an important research when trying to completely understand human behavior and specifically, to have an idea of how our brain manages decision making, order of actions, communication and reasoning. Humans, apparently start walking in circles when we cannot see an external focal point, the moon and the sun represent some examples. In fact, when I first read the article, I was hoping to find a concrete explanation for this problem. However, soon after I knew that so many factors came into play when trying to follow a straight path. When trying to associate these investigations with other aspects of our behavior, I found out that we always find ourselves in need of a sort of a guide in order to fallow a straight line, or in other words, to do what we think is right for our own benefit. Every time we are about to make a decision, we try to find a guide, sometimes this involves getting help from others. Usually, people who get help will most likely make a better decision rather the ones who worked alone without a guide. Personally, I really think this is a big concern, given that there are no answers for such theory. Although I expected to hear from a solution, I found the article very interesting in the end, this represents another big reason why our brain and our anatomy in general is so complicated, therefore studies like this one help us understand ourselves a little bit more, which leads to keep on investigating and learning from it.

One of the Greatest Founding Fathers of America

Alexander Hamilton was one of the Continental Army officers, who served George Washington during the American war of Independence. Hamilton prevailed over the greatest difficulties and miseries like penury and illegitimacy, while gaining the auspicious position as aide-de-camp to George Washington. Hamilton and Washington work hand in hand for more than quarter of century during the Revolutionary War, Hamilton helped Washington in framing the Constitution, and finally the Presidency of the US. The unyielding reputation Alexander Hamilton had enjoyed during the Revolutionary War put him among the greatest heroes of American history.Hamilton was the strongest advocate of the Constitution, and his contribution to the substance of American government is incomparable. Even today after the passage of two centuries, Hamilton’s importance remains unmatched. He will always be remembered for his financial prowess, principled politics, intellectual depth, and hard work. $10 bill of US cu rrency still reminds us of the only non-presidential face besides Franklin to appear on currency note. Hamilton’s Early Life Alexander Hamilton’s early life was not an auspicious by any means; he was born in 1755 in the British West Indies.His father, James Hamilton, was a merchant, could not come to America because of debt. Hamilton’s mother, Rachel Fawcett, had to depended upon friends and family to survival in the new land. When Hamilton reached the age of ten, the family moved to a small island of St. Croix, where his mother could not survive more than few months. Although Hamilton could not get the proper school education, but he excelled himself as a mercantile clerk upon the encouragement of friends and relatives. His formal education began when a Presbyterian minister Reverend Hugh Knox gave a sermon, which proved inspiring to him.Reverend Hugh Knox raised funds to send Alexander away to school in 1773. He entered Kings College in 1774. â€Å"He was qui te a mature young man, with a strong grasp on political issues with a working knowledge of British and American government, which he exhibited in a series of anonymous pamphlets so discerning; they were attributed to John Jay. He was only 17 at the time†. (Frisch, 33) Hamilton’s Military Career In 1775, he discontinued his education, and on March 1776 he founded a volunteer military company.He was then commissioned as Captain of the Provincial Company on New York Artillery. He demonstrated immense talent and intellect in his duties with artillery that Nathanael Green took notice of him. â€Å"He was asked to serve on the staff of Lord Stirling, which he declined, and continued his career with the artillery effectively at Long Island, Harlem Heights, White Plains†¦ as well as seeing action at Trenton and Princeton in the New Jersey campaign†. (Cooke, 71) Hamilton did not study military history and tactics in any institution but developed the military acumen o n his own.Hamilton led a successful raid for British cannon in the Battery, the capture of which resulted in the Hearts of Oak becoming an artillery company thereafter. Through his connections with influential New York patriots like Alexander McDougall and John Jay, he raised his own artillery company of sixty men in 1776, drilling them, selecting and purchasing their uniforms with donated funds, and winning their loyalty; they chose the young man as their captain. Association with George Washington In the campaign of 1776 around New York, Hamilton’s proficiency and bravery got the attention of George Washington.After Hamilton's gallantry and heroic accomplishment displayed at the crucial engagement at Trenton, he was appointed an aide to General Washington. In this position his writing skills and keen sense of judgement would prove essential to the highest command in the army. The 1777 winter encampment at Morristown, New Jersey, found Hamilton with an army of well under 10, 000. The army, however, was reinforced steadily as the winter progressed into spring. During this time Hamilton recorded, â€Å"the many deserters coming in from the enemy showed them to be in desperate straits†¦Since the possibility that the French might enter the war in Europe would disincline the British from sending reinforcements overseas†. (Flexner, 77) Hamilton spent the winter of 1777-1778 with Washington and the Continental Army at Valley Forge. Hamilton’s Non-military/Political Career Hamilton began his non-military career soon after the Revolutionary War. After three months of intensive study of the law in Albany, New York, Hamilton was admitted to the bar in July of 1783. Then, after the British army evacuated New York City, he opened his law office at 57 Wall Street.Hamilton also continued with his political endeavors. He served in Congress from 1782 to 1783, was elected to the Continental Congress, and founded the Bank of New York in February of 1784 . Once elected, Hamilton remained politically active all of his life. He prepared but did not present a proposal calling for a convention with full powers to revise the Articles of Confederation. Instead, he became one of the prime movers for calling the Annapolis Convention. At the Annapolis Convention in September of 1786, Hamilton served as one of three delegates from New York.â€Å"He supported Madison in inducing the Convention to exceed its delegated powers and personally drafted the call to summon the Federal Convention of May 1787 at Philadelphia. At that Convention, Hamilton again represented New York as one of three delegates†. (Goebl,, 127) Rivalry with Jefferson Considering Hamilton in relation to Thomas Jefferson is instructive. During their lives, the two men engaged each other in a titanic struggle over the form of the United States government and its relationship to society. In a directly parallel fashion, the public images of the two men also have been in per petual contention.â€Å"Yet while Hamilton and the Federalists were able to seize the reins of power in the 1790s and institute many of their programs, it is Jefferson who, in the long run, captured the imagination and love of the American people†. (Syrett, 82) Last Years Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton had been on friendly terms for years, but after fifteen years of having every political aspiration thwarted by Hamilton, Burr was seething with anger and itching for revenge. Burr's loss in the governor's race led him to challenge Hamilton to a duel. On July 11, 1804 in Weehawken, New Jersey, Burr exacted his revenge on his nemesis with a single shot.Alexander Hamilton died from the wound on July 12, 1804 in New York City. Works Cited Cooke, Jacob E. , The Reports of Alexander Hamilton, New York: Harper & Row, 1964. Frisch, Morton J. , Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton, Washington/London: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1985. Goeb l, Julius, The Law Practice of Alexander Hamilton, Vols. I & II, New York: Columbia University Press, 1964, 1969. Syrett, Harold C. , The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Vols. 1-27, New York/London: Columbia University Press Flexner, James T. , The Young Hamilton. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1978.

Masculinities represented in music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Masculinities represented in music - Essay Example In brief, a person is either male or female. The latter wholly defines sex as a noun as seen in the society. Gender, in simpler terms, is the state of being either of the two sexes. Masculinity comes in as an attribute of male sexuality. It is the male attribute whose representation in the film industry forms the discussion in the following discourse. Masculinity is not only part of a dualistic gender but under a broader spectrum is what every man is seen to contain that gives rise to that unique manly identity that defines his social and daily life. According to the argument put forward by constructionist , masculinity is constantly changing. This is in tandem with how these changes relate to the wider society. In reference to the argument fronted above, masculinity entails both the aspect of homosexuality as well as heterosexuality. However, according to conservative traditions, masculinity is an attribute of heterosexuality. It is a common belief that for one's masculinity to be c omplete there has to be an attraction to a feminine being. This is the heterosexuality matrix. Basically, this means that for any person to be considered as heterosexual, one must instinctively exhibit attraction to persons who are of the opposite gender. This is the overriding notion in conventional societies which are part of the norms or even trends that a majority in such societies rightly conforms to. The theory on heterosexuality therefore cuts off gay men as masculine. The act of penetration during sex is considered masculine hence the penetrated man is seen as feminine. Having that as an arguable fact also makes the fact that in a lesbian couple, there is a masculine female who is attracted and receives pleasure from penetrating and being in charge of another female. Sexuality complicates gender and the motion on proving masculinity in homosexuals has been continuing for a while. In order for one to understand the masculinity in gender one has to understand the stereotypes i n it as well. In the society, dominance and power sharing is also a factor in the determination of masculinity according to the sexes. Due to the masculine stereotype being portrayed as more dominant to the feminine stereotype, the society tends to respect it and admire it. The media and sports alike have had an effect from this stereotype. Femininity is generally weaker and less influential and mostly for pleasure by masculinity. The society itself shows the difference between masculinity and femininity with practices that are in everyday life. A man, for example, gets a two week maternity leave while a lady gets a twelve week maternity leave. A man generally gets a higher pay as opposed to a female in the same line of work. Women are responsible for domestic development and are the guardians to their homes while the man is the provider. Ladies are more scared and prone to hurt from simple threats as opposed to men. Until recently, the army was a man-only job while the women nursed and tended to the injured. Gender has a way of stereotyping certain activities in the society to fit the roles of the sexes. Modernity tries to beat the role of gender in stereotyping but it fails terribly due to the culture associated with the sexes. Some men feel less satisfied by some jobs they do due to the belief of femininity in them. A man, for example, feels unsatisfied as a nurse a job associated with serving which is feminine in nature. The struggle

Case 3-2 Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

3-2 - Case Study Example Nonetheless, in order to meet such challenges effectively, many organisations in the current context are widely implementing IT governance practice. IT governance initiatives of many organizations are predominately directed towards reducing risks and cost control (Milne & Bowles, 2009). It is equally important that adequate funding is made available for the IT projects. Budgeting of IT projects needs to be made on the basis of prioritisation. In this regard, it has become essential for the organisations to effectively manage IT priorities and align them with business strategies and goals for ensuring desirable outcome (Teo et al., 2000; Berander & Andrews n.d.). At the same time, successful IT leadership is also an imperative factor for ensuring project success. The prime role of IT leaders in the current highly dynamic business environment is not confined to ensuring the effectiveness of the IT program but priority needs to be placed on the overall success of the business (Delisi et al., 2009). Correspondingly, the concerned case study, ‘Volkswagen of America: Managing IT Priorities’ describes the endeavours that have been made by Volkswagen of America (VWoA), the US subsidiary of Volkswagen AG (VWAG) in order to achieve the goal of establishing IT funding priorities and determining the type of project to be funded. The first Volkswagen automobile was designed during the period of 1930s in Germany by Ferdinand Porsche. Initially, Volkswagen was engaged in the development of the low-mid range vehicles that were targeted at the mass market. The success of the company upsurge significantly and worldwide popularity was accorded by the company primarily during 1960s with the development Beetle that was accompanied with air-cooled engine feature. After witnessing rapid growth in the 1960s, the sales of the vehicles dropped dramatically during the early 1970s. The fall in the sales of the company was primarily due the failure of the managers

Lack of effective Information Systems (IS) and Applications at Lesley Case Study

Lack of effective Information Systems (IS) and Applications at Lesley Stowe Fine Foods (LSFF) to support cloud ERP - Case Study Example Optimization of information systems affects success of ERP systems; however, this requires considerable amount of skills and knowledge, which in this case lacks in LSSF in helping it solve issues within its IS framework. LSSF’s inadequate information system mainly deals with the company’s internal resources; however, introducing cloud ERP that supports both internal business resources as well as basic Customer Relationship management system points out to the lack of information systems in the organization. The inadequate information system in the organization is unable to cope with demands of the basic system for customer relationship management that may go beyond the organization’s control. Although information technology is able to solve the issues within the company, introducing the IT solution faces the problem of the lack of IT department in the organization that results in a poor information system that is unable to solve the problems. Although, the cloud ERP solution may be implemented under optimal conditions in the organization, the solution would be prone to various challenges and failures in the organization because of the fragmented IS across its sites in Canada and USA. These issues in the company do not support implementation of cloud ERP solution (Compeau & Scott, 2013). Considering that some employees resort to manual activities in accomplishing their tasks, it is clear that LSSF lacks applications that can support the implementation of cloud ERP solution for the enterprise. The need for integration of various functions in the enterprise illustrates the absence of applications and information systems that support implementation of the intended cloud ERP solution. Given that currently the organization’s production, shipping, and inventory management involve manual processes (Compeau & Scott, 2013), it is clear the information system does not support

Do you think the scarcity (or excess) of water will lead to conflict Essay

Do you think the scarcity (or excess) of water will lead to conflict - Essay Example need to be found, because water requirements are interdependent and water resources cross political boundaries (Asser), but in view of the situation, it seems that conflict is inevitable. According to Ohlsson, water scarcity is brought about by two key issues: natural resource scarcity, and the approaches used to counter the former (qtd in Molen and Hildering 134). The law of nature cannot be put off, and many resort to construction of water reservoirs to address the impending, or shall we say, an already existing adversity. Unfortunately, the disproportionate allocation, movement, and storage of water, after a while, results in extreme phenomena such as floods and droughts (Northwest River Forecast Center); thus anyone of rational thinking will be indecisive about any act of water exploitation. It is not possible for a country to constrain the flow of water within its boundary without endangering itself and the others dependent on it. Feitelson sees the potential of a co-operation scenario, of shared rights and management (qtd in Molen and Hildering 139). Water is indispensable for survival, and reckless measures will only leave both parties empty handed. Experts recommend a number of ways to address water scarcity, to include enhanced conservation and reprocessing (Asser). Moreover, the United Nations relentlessly campaign for amity; and although conflicts may ensue on account of significant differences in culture and ideals, the dire need for water will not make it last

Environmental Geology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Environmental Geology - Assignment Example motions between the larger Pacific, North America and Eurasia plates; these include the Okhotsk and Amur microplates that are respectively part of North America and Eurasia. (b) The Japan Trench subduction zone has hosted nine events of magnitude 7 or greater since 1973. The largest of these is a M 7.8 earthquake approximately 260 km to the north of the March 11 epicenter, caused 3 fatalities and almost 700 injuries in December 1994. In June of 1978, a M 7.7 earthquake 35 km to the southwest of the March 11 epicenter caused 22 fatalities and over 400 injuries. Large offshore earthquakes have occurred in the same subduction zone in 1611, 1896 and 1933 that each produced devastating tsunami waves on the Sanriku coast of Pacific NE Japan. (c) The coastline here is particularly vulnerable to tsunami waves because it has many deep coastal embayments that amplify tsunami waves and cause great wave inundations. The M 7.6 subduction earthquake of 1896 created tsunami waves as high 38 m and a reported death toll of 22,000. The M 8.6 earthquake of March 2, 1933 produced tsunami waves as high as 29 m on the Sanriku coast and caused more than 3000 fatalities. The March 11, 2011 earthquake far surpassed other earthquakes in the southern Japan Trench of the 20th century, none of which attained M8. A predecessor may have occurred on July 13, 869, when the Sendai area was swept by a large tsunami that Japanese scientists have identified from written records and a sand sheet. Ans. Eyjafjallajà ¶kull, also known as Eyjafjà ¶ll, lies south of the intersect between Icelands East Volcanic Zone (EVZ), a NE-SW trending rift system, and the E-W trending South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ). The EVZ is currently the main zone of divergence between the North American and Eurasian plates on the Icelandic landmass, with slightly less divergence currently occurring at the parallel Western Volcanic Zone. Eyjafjallajà ¶kull is an elongated structure somewhat resembling a shield volcano, which is

Leadership versus management in healthcare Coursework

Leadership versus management in healthcare - Coursework Example Management is a process that involves the determination of objectives using human, financial, and physical resources. Managers must make sure that they adopt an appropriate approach of combining all these resources to achieve organizational goals (Shortell & Kaluzny, 2006). Other authors have categorized the roles of a manager as informational, interpersonal, and decisional. In summary, management involves functions such as planning, organizing, evaluating, budgeting, and controlling. On the other hand, leadership involves influencing followers so that they can get on the right track or direction. Therefore, leaders must define strategies and visions for an organization. Therefore, leadership is defined by visions, ideologies, and direction that must be used to influence the followers. The objectives of leaders are to inspire and motivate followers so that they can achieve an identified goal. In the view of many authors, leadership is both goals oriented, and highly inspirational. Cu rrently, there are many leadership theories that describe how leaders use different strategies to influence their followers. In the healthcare sector, both leaders and managers play a critical role. The purpose of many healthcare institutions is to promote the healthcare status of the community while delivering quality services. Leadership serves to define the visions and goals of each healthcare institution. On the other hand, the managers serve to organize all the employees, teams within the healthcare system.

Rectifying Issues in Corrections Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Rectifying Issues in Corrections - Essay Example Among the most influential methods of reducing prison overcrowding, include developing community-based alternatives to incarceration as means of reducing the prison population and reviewing the prison designs (Salins & Simpson, 2013). John Howard, 200 years ago while writing about prison reforms at that time-expressed concern for the destructive effects of such poor conditions on inmates. While in many ways prison conditions have considerably improved, some of the problems that were faced in the past are still present in the current correctional systems. Overcrowding has continued to haunt United States jail and prison as the pressures of an increasing inmate population affected the correctional facilities, coupled with the corrections cost for lower demands, have resulted in living space for inmates growing shortage. Not only do institutions exceed capacity but they also operate at maximum. Inmates are increasingly forced into living in open dormitories and single cells double-bunki ng (James, 2013). Effects of overcrowding studies on inmates have meant describing and defining what crowding basic effects can have on humans, with most of the done research concentrating mostly on social density and spatial density of crowding. The definition of spatial density is viewed as the amount of space in a particular housing unit available per person. On the other hand, the definition of social density is described as the factor, which contributes most to the adverse effects of crowding and number of individuals sharing a housing unit. Total effects of crowding, however cannot be explained by just density alone, researchers like physical environment and personal control have found other factors that heighten or lessen the density impact (James, 2013). Addressing Overcrowding Many corrections researchers and officials agree it is not realistic to solve and expect the overcrowding problem solely through constructing newer and more facilities. In the United States, an increa sed focuses on the reduction of the correctional facilities population, whether in the future or currently with alternatives to incarceration, such as intermediate sanctions and community supervision that range from fines to parole release has been noted. However, this has proved to be a challenging and more complex route than that of corrections facilities redesigning the physical environments. An example of this implementation in the Canadian correctional services shows that to correct the overcrowding, they have established five strategic corporate objectives to implement a strategy for community supervision, to develop differential standards that will enable community case workers to focus greater attention on high-risk offenders. Other objectives include continuing effective population management, developing policies that will allow more low-risk offenders to be released at their earliest parole eligibility date and develop better policies with regard to those individuals ident ified as good parole risks (Johnson & Johnson, 2012). To the overcrowding issue, researchers in the United States have explored alternative responses and called into question some of the assumptions about the reasons for correctional overcrowding and the effectiveness of community-based alternatives to i

Merger and Acquisition in China Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10000 words

Merger and Acquisition in China - Coursework Example This was undertaken in the form of a qualitative study as the author was obtaining subjective information relating to the failure of this merger/acquisition. This was undertaken in the form of primary research. The qualitative methods were also chosen as the information obtained was used to develop themes and form conclusions on the reasons behind the collapse of the DANONE and Wahaha Group deal (Cooper and Schindler 2003, Creswell 2003, Hair et al 2003, Saunders et al 2003) that will be useful for determining the advantages and disadvantages of establishing mergers and acquisitions in the Chinese market. The primary research with the head of Wahaha demonstrated the lack of openness or the no willingness to discuss this issue in great detail. The benefits derived by China from its merger and acquisitions activity with developed nations include increased development and economic activity. The benefits also include the acquisition of new technology, knowledge and skills, which would ha ve otherwise taken significantly longer to achieve, and for a relatively lower price. However, the main disadvantages are that of the lack of knowledge of mergers and acquisitions as they are mainly driven by the developed world. Mergers and acquisitions do occur in China regularly, but this is different to such activities with companies that are not Chinese. Table of Contents Table of Contents 4 1.0 Introduction 5 1.2 Significance of the study 10 1.3 Research objectives 11 1.5 Research model 12 2.1 Mergers and Acquisitions and the Stock Market 15 2.1.1 The merger and acquisition environment 16 2.2 Cross Border Mergers and Acquisitions 18 2.2.1 Cross Border problems faced by Chinese companies 20 2.2.2 Countermeasures faced by Chinese companies 22 2.4 Business Culture 26 2.5 Introduction to Case Study 27 3.0 Methodology 28 4.0 Results 33 4.1 Primary Research 33 4.2 Secondary Research 34 5.0 Discussion 49 6.0 Conclusion 56 6.1 Recommendations 59 6.2 Limitations 60 7.0 References 61 1.0 Introduction The open door policy initiated by Deng Xiaoping in China in1992 with the intention to push forward China's economic progress brought in considerable wealth in the form of Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) (Galbraith, 2000). This policy enabled institutional change (North 1990), which in turn created opportunities for investment into the Chinese economy. What was different about this policy was that it was a gradual change and not a sudden change as experienced in other developing countries, which led to bankruptcies and high costs (Campbell and Lindberg 1991). This policy also placed emphasis on foreign capital policy, the foreign exchange system, and it also offered promising conditions for foreign investors (Galbraith, 2000). This policy has since reaped dividends given that the main mode for FDI into the Chinese economy has been through foreign funded and joint venture companies. This has also reflected in figures which show that between 1990 and 1996, China managed to attract appr oximately $230 billion of foreign capital, with 20% of that amount coming from developing nations (Galbraith, 2000). However, the open door policy

Village vs City Essay Example for Free

Village vs City Essay Introduction: Village life is the happiest compromise between the natural and the artificial. It is a merry game between man and nature. Hence, village life is the most natural life for the human beings. General description: see more:city life and village life paragraph The village is panorama of the charming scenes of nature. The scenery of the changing seasons has a profound effect on the village life. It brings a divine touch into human mind. Hence, the village life is full of divine beauty. Village life is plain and simple. Villagers are content with the necessities of life. They have no liking for luxury. They manage with a few pieces of clothes. They prefer the plain food. They discharge their social duties in the simplest manner possible. Villagers are mostly field-workers. They take to farming. Some of them are artisans. All of them follow the trade of their respective castes. They take to different callings of life. Some are priests, some are milkmen, some are oilmen, some are fishermen, some are washermen, some are barbers, some are drummers and so on. They are not rich and wealthy. But they have enough for their minimum requirements of life. The village people take part in fairs and festivals. The celebrations are quite plain and simple. They attend the folk dance and the open air dramas. But the aged of them do not attend the functions. They are happy with their house and harvest. The village people lead the life of plain living and high thinking. They think high, because they think in the terms of God and religon. The village temple maintains their social and moral upkeep. The village temple maintains their social and moral upkeep. The village deity is looked upon with awe and faith. Caste-customs are rigidly followed. Rust of remedy: We know that village people have few wants in life. They are content with what is endowed by nature around them. So, they do not like to make any progress. Consequently, the village life has gone rusty. Evils of ignorance and blind faiths have crept in. Un-education and epidemics are rampant. Now, it is our duty to find out a remedy to this state of affairs. Mass education and public health are the primary conditions for the improvement of the village life. Conclusion: It is said that country life is sweet. It is true no doubt. The greatest of the poets have sung the praise of it. Prophets, too have the greatest admiration for the village life. Great thinkers and philosophers have spent their invaluable lives in the countryside. Hence, village life is highly cherished, in all ages by every soulful man.

Evidence Based Healthcare Research Social Work Essay

Evidence Based Healthcare Research Social Work Essay Evidenced Based Healthcare and Research: Appraisal. In the United Kingdom the concept of Independent Living and Self-directed Support has become an established approach for the delivery of health and social care services, that it is currently the preferred residential alternative for people with learning disabilities (Binnie Titchen 1999). Independent living can be defined as enabling independence by receiving the right support how and when it is required (Morris 2004). It has now become a key principle in various government policy documents such as the Valuing People Now Strategy (UK Department of Health, 2009) and the Personalisation through Person-Centred Planning initiative (UK Department of Health, 2010). This assignment aims to present a detailed critique of a qualitative study entitled How adults with learning disabilities view independent living (Bond Hurst 2010). A critique can defined as a balanced evaluation of the strengths and limitations of a research article, in order to determine its credibility and/or applicability to practice (Gamgee 2006). This study is a welcome contribution to the current health and social care research domain because whilst independent living is the preferred residential option, it is not at all clear whether it is suitable for all people with learning disabilities, moreover if there is in fact sufficient empirical evidence to support this notion. It is therefore imperative to establish a sound evidence base that draws upon the lived personal experiences of those with learning disabilities. Using an acknowledged framework A Step by Step guide to critiquing a quantitative study (Coughan et al., 2007) the relative worth of the evidence in support of i ndependent living will be judged systematically. As well as exploring the significance of independent living as an essential nursing intervention and its application to modern clinical practice. Ryan-Wenger (2003) suggests that in analysing published articles it is important to ascertain two fundamental aspects of a critique which can be subdivided into elements that influence the robustness of the research methodology also known as integrity variables and elements which influence the believability of the research such as writing style, author(s), report title and abstract otherwise known as credibility variables. The latter seems to be the most logical place to commence. Evaluation of the Journal Article Polit and Beck (2006) state that writing style should be such that it attracts the reader to read on; this paper is well written, comprehensive and concise. The structure and layout of the paper is well organised with a logical consistency and free from jargon in comparison to some papers where the author(s) can be opaque in their approach. However slight reservation is reserved concerning the level of proof reading as there seems to be some grammatical and typographical errors which can be found on pages 288 and 289. Both authors appear to have a sound background in learning disability from both a social context and educational settings. As indicated in the acknowledgements the authors qualifications indicate that they have a degree of knowledge in this field and this piece of research seems to be a part of a taught component of their masters programme. The report tile seems to be descriptive and succinct, although it lacks specificity of the research methodology used in the study. This can be very useful for others who are searching for this type of paper. Although the term qualitative research is mentioned under keywords the title itself could be more specific. As a result the report title is ambiguous and merely eight words in length. Meehan (1999) states that a title should be between ten to fifteen words long in order to clearly identify the purpose of the study for the reader. This paper presents both an accessible and detailed version of the abstract, but are both helpful? The accessible form includes information on the subject and the number of participants, whereas the detailed form provides an outline of the methodology used, ethical framework, findings and recommendations. On balance the summaries present a clear overview of the study, however it does beg the question in what sense is the accessible form accessible? and to whom? It seems that the authors are trying to be politically correct rather than logical because how many service users actually read the British Journal of Learning Disabilities?. It seems that this is a knee jerk reaction which has been applied incorrectly; it would be more suitable if the document was aimed at informing an audience with learning disabilities such as Valuing People (UK Department of Health, 2001) which caters to a wide range of readers. The easy -read version is aimed at service users whilst the denser version is aimed at professionals and service providers. Having identified and analysed variables that affect the credibility of the research presented, how believable the work appears, the authors qualifications and their ability to undertake and accurately present the study. The robustness of the research methodology and the integrity of the findings will be appraised in order to determine the trustworthiness of the study and its applicability to nursing practice. The authors state the aim of the study is to explore the views of nine people with learning disabilities who have already achieved independence and wish to contribute to the debate of independent living. The authors suggest that this style of living is now viewed as desirable, but what is the reality for people who live with learning disabilities? This concept of desirability is held as problematic by the authors who choose to study and present the reality of living independently as opposed to the notion of general and conventional wisdom. A study conducted by Barlow Kirby (1991) concluded that people in receipt of self-directed support had more life satisfaction than those in residential care. This finding is further supported by the publication of Independent Living (HM Office for Disability Issues, 2007). The decision to suspend judgement about independent living is justifiable and is supported by other researchers in the field of learning disabilities; as there are several impli cations for service users, professionals and service providers. This is for a number of reasons for instance promoting choice and control (OBrien, 2002), health issues (Priest Gibbs, 2004), vulnerability (Cooper, 2002) and the ability for those with learning disabilities to access services (Jansen et al., 2006). The literature review conducted by the authors demonstrates an appropriate depth and breadth of reading around independent living. The majority of studies included are of recent origin being less than five years old; the few historical studies included put the concept of living independently into context. The authors successfully identified conflicts between the literature by comparing and contrasting findings (Burns and Grove., 1997), because although evidence exists to show people who have moved from larger institutions prefer smaller group homes (Forrester-Jones et al., 2002) there is still no accurate data detailing the number of people with learning disabilities living independently (Beadle Brown et al., 2004). However the authors failed to mention how they conducted their search and information on the databases used to gather papers in their review. The authors did however, use primary sources of information as opposed to secondary sources and anecdotal information, which attes ts to the integrity and value of the study presented. Bond Hurst (2010) ascertained the narratives of nine people with learning disabilities via the use of semi-constructed interviews within their methodology. The authors are to be commended for their attention to detail in terms of their ability to design and structure interviews so as to accommodate the needs of the participants. As well as conducting interviews at times and venues convenient to them. The interview structure included open-ended questions to assist understanding as communication emerged to be a key barrier for some people with learning disabilities. The authors report on a number of theoretical issues that have been adapted for the participants in order that they might fully participate in the research process. The structure of the interviews was devised using the Canadian Model of Occupational Performance (Canadian Association of Occupational Therapists, 1997), but is this model applicable to the United Kingdom population and to which care setting? Bond Hurst (2010) adopted thematic analysis within their methodology in assessing the narratives. The data collected was audio taped and later transcribed into coded themes, which is acknowledged in general research literature to be good practice. On balance, the authors adhered to the steps in the research process and it is conveyed between the fluidity of phases. The critique subsequently moves onto considering the ethical framework. This research paper was supported by the local ethics committee and all participants in the study gave informed consent. Although it is not clear whether or not it was an National Health Service (NHS) ethics committee. However, the authors sought to ensure their working methods complied with the Data Protection Act (1998) but not with all government legislation applicable to the study such as the Mental Health Act (1983). Although there is mention about accessibility, the authors failed to ensure the participants had the capacity to make informed decisions as defined in the Mental Health Act (1983). In relation to the number of participants, the sample size is small and therefore may not be reflective or wholly representative for all people with learning difficulties. Small samples are more likely to be at risk of being overly representative of small subgroups within a target population (Coughan et al., 2007). Th erefore slight reservation is held as the authors did not mention whether they sought to remove overall bias by generating a sample that is likely to be representative and generalisable to the target population. Parahoo (2006) states that for a sample to truly reflect of the population it represents the authors must generate a probability sample. The participants in this study were recruited via convenience sampling using a third party (Melton 1998); however several variables could have an affect on the sample which can lead to it being distorted such as the vast age range. The authors are to be commended however, in their efforts to maintain the confidentiality of their participants by offering them the choice to provide their own pseudonyms. In the discussion the authors identified seven themes from their data analysis which reflected the views of all the participants and in turn addressed the aims of the study. Their findings supported the four key principles as stated in the Valuing People policy document, and ways in which people can be supported to achieve this includes increasing social inclusion, increasing autonomy and choice for people and raising awareness of the vulnerability of those with learning disabilities. However the study also highlighted that the majority of participants struggled with the more complex aspect of living independently, such as money management and budgeting. The government has recently introduced Direct Payments as part of a nationwide transformation in social care services, which involves paying money directly to an individual in need to take control of their own support and care services. This initiative will aid finance management as it enables service users to have control over the c are they receive and how they receive it. The majority of participants maintained that when comparing their current lifestyle of independent living to that of their previous lifestyle it was clear that they wanted to remain living independently. Application to Clinical Practice This section will explore the significance of independent living as an essential nursing intervention and its application to modern clinical practice. Gates Atherton (2001) state that there is a need for evidence of effectiveness in health and social care. The most important aspect of being a practitioner regardless of ones vocation, is that collectively we as professionals seek the best evidence available on which to base our practice (Coughan et al., 2007). The evidence in support of independent living is limited and not entirely accurate, therefore when evidence is presented it should not be taken on face value. As Cullum Droogan (1999) put it not all research is of the same quality or high standard therefore as a learning disability nurse and social worker it is important being a care provider that although a paper has been published it can be critically appraised. This paper is of central relevance to our practice in ensuring that the lifestyles of people with learning disabil ities are informed by valid and reliable evidence. This research paper adds value to the current literature available in support of independent living however caution must be expressed as it is not solely about living independently. The concept of independently living cannot be advocated for everyone; each person is different and therefore require different levels of support which will meet their needs. The publication of Valuing People (UK Department of Health, 2001) the key document that prompted a change in the way health and social care services operate. The paper made Person-Centred Planning a central component of service reform, and outlined four key principles namely: Human Rights, Independence, Choice and Social Inclusion (Mansell and Beadle-Brown, 2004). This means that people with learning disabilities should be valued members of society, treated with dignity and respect whilst having the same rights and choices as everybody else (OBrien, 2002). Furthermore, people with le arning disabilities should feel empowered to take control over the care that they receive in order to plan and live their lives independently. Previously, people with learning disabilities were shunned away from the community and susceptible to abuse. The Community Care Act (1990) was introduced as a result of both political and social changes in attitudes towards the treatment of people with mental illnesses. In line with Mental Health Act (1983) the aim was to remove the stigma associated with mentally ill people away from isolation towards social inclusion (Social Role Valorisation, Wolfensberger, 1983). But does independently living mean that you get social inclusion? Currently we are seeing a culture of people who require support being effectively excluded from society, waiting for the next support worker to cook their meals, help with personal hygiene and general cleaning. This is a downward spiral in our society which is putting a demand on our system. As a care provider in line with the General Social Care Council and the Nursing and Midwifery Codes of Conduct (2008), it is our duty to advocate in the best interest of the client at all times but who is actually making the decisions? Bond Hurst (2010) highlighted how closely health was linked to independent living and that many of the participants suffered from chronic conditions such as asthma, diabetes and arthritis. Is it a case of compromising funding for services at the expense of overlooking health issues? It seems that the authors make a plausible case that people with learning disabilities are being seen as not a priority as they carry a disproportionate burden of health inequalities among our population. The reality for people with learning disabilities is far from the projected lifestyle of independence (Emerson UK Literature). It is a challenge to support people with learning disabilities, several factors need to be considered to prevent potential disregard. Jansen et al., (2006) points out the need to adopt integrated care approaches in treating those with learning disabilities. This will involve working with different agencies (interagency team working) and different types of professionals (multidis ciplinary team working) in order to provide an holistic service to meet their needs. Current research shows that a disabled person is likely to be in contact with at least ten different care professionals in their lifetime (UK Department of Education, 2003). Issues can arise through out this time which may lead to lack of continuity and communication. Therefore, a sufficient amount of training and awareness is needed to ensure that all staff are qualified and skilled to ensure equity of service provision. When caring for patients it is essential as a practitioner to adopt the current best practice. To determine what this is one must be able to critically appraise evidence that is presented to them (Basset and Basset., 2003). This paper focused on the lived experiences of nine people with learning disabilities about the reality of living independently. In critiquing this paper, the authors successfully highlighted the importance of independent living as an essential nursing intervention however there were also some limitations, the most important being limited verification of the data. Furthermore the narratives of the participants were highly subjective and findings non-generalisable, thus the notion of independent living is not to be applied to all that have a learning disability, or vulnerable adults with complex needs. As recommended by the authors, further accurate, reliable and valid research is needed that will add value to the evidence-base domain. Total Word Count: 2,452 Excluding Headings and References

Serving the political objectives of the principal participants

Serving the political objectives of the principal participants The Korean War officially began on 25 Jun 1950 when forces of the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK North Korea) invaded the Republic of Korea (ROK South Korea). After initial stunning successes by both sides, there then followed over 3 years of bloody conflict which ultimately ended in an uneasy status quo ante bellum which still persists. The central hypothesis to this paper is that the use of military force was an effective policy tool for all parties involved to meet defined political objectives. The degree of success that each state/organisation achieved will be examined in detail. This essay will be limited to analysing the conflicts immediate aftermath and will not consider events beyond the Geneva Conference in Apr 1954. Specifically, this essay will investigate the rationale that led the DPRKs leader (Kim Il Sung) to consider the use of military force to achieve his primary objective of unifying Korea. The causes of the Korean War will also be briefly examined to set analysis in context. Causes The decisive event that caused the Korean War was the decision by two US Army Colonels on 10 August 1945 to divide Korea at the 38th parallel  [1]  . The decision was taken on Aug 10 1945 and for no better reason than à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it would place the capital city [Seoul] in the American zone.  [2]  From the moment that the Korean partition decision was made public, the leaders of the DPRK and ROK were essentially determined to establish a unified country by diplomatic or military means. Indeed, many in the United States were worried that the ROK would invade the DPRK first, such was the bellicose rhetoric emanating from the ROK President Synghman Rhee. The dividing line on the 38th parallel did not have any historical significance to Koreans of any faction and the imposition of an arbitrary dividing line by the joint Soviet/United Commission in Korea came as a total shock  [3]  . Indeed, Bruce Cumings asserts that the interim United States occupation forces nearly became as unpopular as the newly ousted Japanese once the 38th Parallel decision became widely known  [4]  . It can therefore be argued that nascent nationalism, coupled with diametrically opposed ideologies and the unfortunate choice of an arbitrary dividing line provided the catalyst for the DPRK invasion of the ROK on 25 Jun 1950. It can also be postulated that Kim Il Sung was left with little option but to resort to military means to bring about his desired end state of unifying Korea. Military outcomes From its inception, the Korean War was viewed as a limited war by the principal combatants, who (albeit for different reasons) had no wish to see the conflict escalate into a wider conflagration. The military outcome of the Korean War was indeterminate, with neither side emerging as a clear victor. After the initial period of manoeuvre (from Jun 1950 Jun 1951) the Korean War settled into a stalemate reminiscent of World War 1 trench warfare. With neither side willing to escalate the conflict to gain a decisive edge, continued operations by UN and Communist forces essentially became a series of (relatively) pointless battles  [5]  in order to gain territory or exert political leverage at the Armistice negotiations in Panmunjom. When the Korean Armistice was formally signed on 27 Jul 1953, a heavily fortified Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) was established following front line positions. Neither side could claim victory in the true sense of the word. Political and Strategic Objectives of the Soviet Union Due to chronic instability in the ROK, the Korean peninsula perhaps presented the best opportunity for a communist leaning buffer state to be established that would protect Soviet and Chinese borders from any perceived American threat. The northern portion of Korea was occupied by Soviet troops, who quickly moved to support indigenous communist orientated commissariats. Kim Il Sung emerged as the favoured choice of the Soviet leadership and the DPRK was established in 1948. Once it became clear that Korea would not be unified by political means alone, and the Soviet Union had successfully tested an atomic bomb, Stalin eventually gave his consent and backing to Kim Il Sung  [6]  to proceed with the invasion of the ROK, but was purportedly unwilling to widen the conflict and risk a wider war with the USA  [7]  . Stalin viewed the Korean conflict as a key part of a wider Soviet strategy to embroil the USA (and its allies) in a protracted struggle far away from what both sides regarded as the Centre of Gravity in Europe. In this the Soviets largely succeeded as the USA became wedded to the defence of the ROK on a point of principle after the DPRK invasion. Stalin also determined that it would be perhaps better for the Soviet Union to engage in conflict with the United States at an early juncture, rather than to wait for Germany and Japan to be re-armed, which would greatly increase Western military capability: [Stalin] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦added that even if the USA provoked a big war, let it take place now rather than a few years later, when Japanese militarism will be restored as an American ally, and when the United States and Japan will possess a military spring-board on the continent in the form of Rhees Korea.  [8]   The Soviet Unions relationship with China was crucial. Stalin viewed newly communist China as the junior partner in the communist world. While content to provide administrative, technical and planning advice, Stalin determined that the Soviet Union would not become overtly involved in any Korean conflict in order to avoid a direct confrontation with the United States. Kim Il Sung visited Moscow in Apr 1950; during this period, Stalin laid out the terms of any DPRK invasion of the ROK as: The Chinese (specifically Mao Zedong) must approve the invasion; The DPRK invasion must appear as a counter to an ROK move into the DPRK; and that Kim Il Sung would not be able to rely on overt Soviet support if the USA intervened, but would have to rely on Chinese support  [9]  . In essence, Stalin determined that there were great advantages to a conflict being fought by proxy between the fledgling communist Chinese state and the United States. A conflagration in Korea that pitted the United States against China would make any chance of rapprochement between the two states highly unlikely and would also fix American attention far from the Soviet vital ground in eastern Europe. Another key piece of evidence of Soviet strategy was revealed by the former Sovier premier Nikita Khrushchev. In his memoirs, Khrushchev gave an explanation of why Stalin decided to support Kim Il Sungs proposed invasion of the ROK. Khrushchev stated that when the United States Secretary of State (Dean Acheson) publicly stated that the ROK was outside of the United States Defence Perimeter  [10]  , this inadvertently sent a strong signal to Stalin that the ROK was a soft spot that was worth exploiting  [11]  . Stalin therefore reasoned that the United States would not commit forces to support the ROK regime in the event of a DPRK invasion  [12]  . Once it became clear that the Korean Peninsula would not be unified by diplomatic means, Stalin was content to sanction the use of military force (by his DPRK proxy) to bring about unification of Korea. The eventual outcome of the Korean War did not meet the Soviet primary political goal of establishing a communist, unified Korea as the eventual cease fire line ran almost exactly along the 38th parallel. Despite this, it can be argued that the Soviet Union greatly benefited from the outcomes of the Korean War. The United States was badly shaken by the Chinese intervention in Nov 1950  [13]  and the loss of American prestige was tangible when United Nations forces were forced into a pell-mell retreat south after the Chinese riposte in Nov 1950. The Korean War diverted the United States from what the Soviet Union determined as its vital ground in Europe. Korea also provided a means to test Soviet military capabilities in combat against the United States, especially in the air. Finally, Korea also allowed the Soviet Union to cement its relationship with China and prevent any rapprochement between China and the United States. The Soviet Union, by financing and supporting its Chinese and DPRK proxies was thus able to meet the majority of its aims, without becoming overtly involved in the fighting. On the minus side, Soviet support for the DPRK invasion unwittingly provided the justification for huge increases in United States military spending and the rearmament of West Germany and Japan. The Soviets were henceforth viewed as aggressors bent on spreading communism throughout the world, which the United States was clearly going to resist. United States Political Objectives and Strategy Prior to the outbreak of the Korean War, debate was intense as to how the United States should respond to the perception that Soviet aggression in Europe and elsewhere was on the increase. With memories of the Berlin Airlift still fresh and communist ideology seemingly in the ascendancy everywhere, US policy makers sought to determine what course the United States should follow in response to perceived Soviet aggression. A key strategy document outlined the United States response to the communist threat and was drafted in early Jan 1950 by the National Security Council (NSC). The resulting paper (NSC 68) aimed to define how the United States would respond to Soviet expansionist aims and also made predictions about the future nature of conflict between the superpowers in a bi-polar world post World War 2. While it was recognised that the main Soviet threat was most likely in Europe, NSC 68 recognised that the communist threat was global and would have to be countered. NSC 68 defined t he United States options as: Option 1: Maintain current policy; Option 2: Adopt an Isolationalist stance; Option 3: Go to war with the Soviet Union; Option 4: Fund and authorise a rapid build up of political, military and economic strength.  [14]   NSC 68 painted a dire picture of Soviet intentions and recommended that Option 4 was the preferred course to chart. The principal author (Paul H. Nitze) proposed radical steps, many of which were politically highly sensitive. Key recommendations were that West Germany should be rearmed as a priority and that a policy of Containment be adopted. Containment was defined as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦It is one which seeks by all means short of war to (1) block further expansion of Soviet power, (2) expose the falsities of Soviet pretensions, (3) induce a retraction of the Kremlins control and influence, and (4) in general, so foster the seeds of destruction within the Soviet system that the Kremlin is brought at least to the point of modifying its behaviour to conform to generally accepted international standards  [15]  . President Harry S. Truman was presented with the conclusions from NSC 68 in Apr 1950. Its findings placed Truman in a dilemma; although the United States still had many more nuclear weapons than the Soviet Union,  [16]  the United States could not afford the increase in conventional military spending and support to European nations proposed by the paper. The United States Congress had strongly opposed increased military spending in favour of more spending within the United States. A fierce debate thus raged in the United States as to how perceived Soviet aggression should be responded to. United States policy towards the ROK was somewhat haphazard. As already mentioned, Acheson had publicly stated that the ROK was outside of the United States Defence Perimeter and relations with Rhee were often difficult given his bellicose nature and frequent outbursts about reunifying Korea by force. This prompted the US Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) to press for remaining US troops to be withdrawn in order to concentrate on more important commitments elsewhere. The last US troops were withdrawn late in 1949, which again seemed to signal to Kim Il Sung and Stalin that the United States would not intervene in the event of an invasion of the ROK. Meanwhile, the debate over the implications of NSC 68 continued to rage in Washington, with those in favour of increasing military spending gaining little traction in the face of harsh budget realities. The invasion of the ROK on 25 Jun 1950 was greeted with shock in Washington and no doubt a degree of satisfaction by those that had signposted the Soviet inspired communist threat. American policy was thus immediately polarised and global US Political objectives were quickly wedded to the idea of Containment. The DPRK invasion of the ROK acted as an accelerant that ignited the United States commitment to defending what it perceived as the free nations of the world. Due to an ongoing Soviet boycott of the Untied Nations, the United States was able to secure the UNs approval for the use of force and quickly committed substantial forces in support of the United Nations Command (UNC) in order to restore ROK sovereign territory. With the support of the UN and the containment of DPRK forces at Pusan, many in the United States began to call for a more aggressive strategy to Rollback communism. The United States implemented its Rollback strategy in Korea after the successful landings at Inchon on 15 Sep 1950 had severed DPRK supply routes and seen communist forces retreat in disarray back over the 38th parallel. UN Security Council Resolutions 82 85 condemned DPRK actions and eventually gave UNC forces authority to proceed north across the 38th parallel with the express intent of removing Kim Il Sung and reunifying Korea as a nation state. What set out as an ideological stance taken in Washington to Rollback communism was thus implemented in reality i n Korea, with poor results after decisive Chinese intervention. While it will be debated later in this essay if the UNC advance precipitated Chinas entry into the conflict, it certainly was a contributory factor. The United States was justified to seek UN approval to use force to restore ROK territorial integrity; Containment was a valid political objective that justified the use of force in response to the perceived Soviet threat. The Rollback strategy was (with hindsight) unjustifiable and did not warrant the use of force in a vain attempt to unify Korea. Overall, and despite the ambiguity of its outcome, the Korean War had important implications for American foreign policy. In the short-term, the conflict globalized the policy of containment and was the impetus for vastly increased Defence spending and extensive US military deployments in Europe and elsewhere. The Korean War deepened the United States already combative relationship with the Soviet Union and effectively scuppered any possibility of cordial diplomatic relations with Communist China for twenty years. The outcome of the Korean War was satisfactory for the United States. Communist advances had been contained and the ROK preserv ed as a bulwark against communism in Asia. Korea also had a far ranging impact on US policy and the policy of containment was to be applied to South Vietnam with disastrous results. China In Apr 1949, the Chinese Civil War ended in the decisive defeat of the Chinese Nationalists. A newly unified China under the leadership of Chairman Mao Zedong was keen to assert much greater influence in the region and this was to be a critical factor for the duration of the Korean War. United States support for the remnants of the Chinese Nationalist regime in Taiwan continued to be a major source of friction between the United States and China and was an underlying theme that determined Chinese political and strategic objectives in the region. As a result of the United States overt support of the Nationalist regime and the lack of Chinese counters to US military strength (particularly Naval), Mao was keen to determine if there was an indirect means to confront the United States and perhaps even extract concessions over the future of the Nationalist redoubt in Taiwan. Chinas decision to enter the Korean War was determined by Chinese leaders interpretation of Chinas security interests and their judgment as to how Chinas security would be affected by entering the conflict. At this early juncture after the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War, the Chinese leadership was highly sensitive as to how Chinas stature, capability and willingness to defend its position were perceived by outsiders and particularly the West. China had suffered greatly at the hands of Great Britain and the USA and others during a prolonged period of foreign intervention in its affairs and Mao determined at an early stage that China would become involved in a Korean conflict if the situation dictated  [17]  . Once UN Forces crossed the 38th parallel in force and the Rollback strategy was openly advocated by the United States, the Rubicon was clearly crossed for the Chinese leadership and in particular Mao Zedong leaving them little choice but to act to defend its interests in the region. In essence, if all of Korea was occupied by UNC forces, then this would (in the eyes of the Chinese leadership) create a fatal danger to the fledgling Chinese revolution. Chinas use of force to meet its strategic objectives was fully justified in the minds of the Chinese leadership. The sanctity of the Chinese revolution appeared to be under threat once Rollback gained significant support in the UN. It can also be argued that Mao saw a fleeting opportunity for China to deal an embarrassing blow to UN Forces by committing large numbers of Chinese volunteers at a decisive moment in the campaign. By committing Chinese forces to an ideological struggle such as Korea, Maos reasoning can be assessed as sound; China would bolster its credibility within communist circles and perhaps emerge from the conflict as a beacon for other fledgling communist states so long as the west was prevented from securing success in Korea. Underlying much of Chinese strategic thought was the possibility that prolonged involvement in any Korean conflict had the potential to secure concessions from the United States over the future of Japan and crucially Taiwan. Chinese intransige nce during the later stages of the Korean War can be attributed to not wishing to terminate the conflict until a more favourable situation had been achieved by communist forces and also Stalins wish to prolong the conflict to keep the USA involved in a peripheral action. DPRK Strategy and Political Objectives DPRK strategy was relatively simple once the division of Korea became permanent. Under the shrewd leadership of Kim Il Sung, the DPRK charted a course that played the Soviet Union and China off each other in order to serve the DPRKs best interests. Once any hope of a diplomatic solution had vanished to unify Korea, Kim Il Sung determined that a narrow window of opportunity existed for the military unification of Korea. Indeed, the DPRKs invasion of the ROK perhaps provides the best example of Clausewitzs dictum à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that war is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of political commerce, a carrying out of the same by other means  [18]  . On 7 March 1949, while talking to Stalin in Moscow Kim Il Sung said: We believe that the situation makes it necessary and possible to liberate the whole country through military means. The Soviet leader apparently disagreed, citing the military weakness of the North, the Soviet-USA agreement on the 38th parallel division and the possibility of American intervention if the DPRK intervened militarily in the ROK. Stalin added that only if the ROK/USA attacked Pyongyang could the DPRK try military reunification by launching a counterattack. Then, the Kremlin chief explained, your move will be understood and supported by everyone.  [19]  On 17 January 1950, Kim Il Sung complained to the Soviet ambassador Shtykov: I cant sleep at night because I am thinking of the unification of the whole country. If the cause is postponed, then I may lose the confidence of the Korean people. Kim Il Sung apparently requested permission to make a new visit to the USSR to receive orders and permission fr om Stalin for the offensive  [20]  . This is a key point; for Kim Il Sung, the war was as much about maintaining popular consent for his regime as it was for unifying Korea. The DPRK was essentially justified in resorting to the use of force in its attempt to unify Korea. This is a contentious point of view, but it can be argued that as the Korean War was essentially a civil war, then once diplomatic means had been exhausted, the only way left to Sung was to exhort the Soviet Union and China to support a military endeavour to unify the Korean peninsula. It could also be argued that had the ROK not been supported by the United States, then the ideological and nationalist tensions in Korea would have played out after a period of internal wrangling. Korea would have likely emerged after the end of the Cold War as a stable, unified state that would have been open to capitalist influence (like many former Warsaw Pact states) and not the insular, paranoid autocracy that still persists. The outcomes of the Korean War essentially did not meet the primary aim of the DPRK to unify Korea, but did ensure the continued support and investment of the Soviet Union and C hina, much as the United States supported the ROK. ROK Political and Strategic objectives ROK strategy was again relatively simple. By continually agitating against the communist DPRK regime, Rhee hoped to draw the United States into a Korean Civil War in order to enable the unification of Korea by force. Many accounts of the time place the blame squarely on the DPRK for invading the ROK, but this is too simplistic. Rhee continually blustered that he would lead an ROK invasion of the DPRK to reunite Korea. On a visit with The US Secretary of State (John Foster Dulles) a reporter (William Mathews of the Arizona Daily Star) recorded that: He [Rhee] is militantly for the unification of Korea. Openly says it must be brought about soonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Rhee pleads justice of going into North country. Thinks it could succeed in a few days à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[I]f he can do it with our help, he will do it  [21]  . Rhee was an ardent nationalist and was clearly set on reuniting Korea by any means, so long as he had the support of the United States to do so. ROK forces were responsibl e for repeated violations of the 38th parallel and ROK initiated artillery exchanges were commonplace from Spring 1949 onwards  [22]  . Continued United States military support was thus at times difficult to justify in the face of pressing commitments elsewhere and the Joint Chiefs of Staff finally withdrew all but a token force of advisors in late 1949  [23]  . The primary political objective of the ROK can thus be clearly identified as seeking to secure and maintain United States military, economic and political involvement in the ROK. In this, the Rhee regime was entirely successful as the Korean War precipitated massive United States military, economic and political support which extends to the present day. Indeed, the prolonged nature of the conflict served to ensure that the Korean conflict was centre stage of the Truman/Eisenhower Presidential Election. Rhee and his regime survived the war intact and the experience of the conflict had a direct influence on ROK politics for two generations with successive semi military dictatorships controlling ROK affairs. The United Nations Facing its sternest test, the United Nations had weathered a challenge, which, if unanswered, might have resulted in disaster and eventual disintegration. Under the U.N. flag, the original objective of the intervention in Korea-halting Communist aggression-had been successfully carried out and the independence of its foster child, the Republic of Korea, had been preserved. This practical demonstration of how the United Nations could function when peace was threatened greatly enhanced the prestige of the organization and established a precedent for future U.N. military action if the need should again arise. The effort had not been given unanimous support by U.N. members, it is true, but twentyone nations had contributed forces of one kind or another to sustain the U.N. decision. Although many of these countries had supplied only small token units, the mere fact that they had participated at all was encouraging, since it indicated their belief in the U.N. and their willingness to put teeth in the enforcement provisions of its charter. The Korean War marked a real departure from the dismal experience of the League of Nations in this respect. Conclusions